Case 4.4 Waste Management

Waste Management, Inc. Waste Management, Inc. , incorporated in 1968, had become a leader in the industry of waste management services ranging from industrial operations to curbside collection. This company had become synonymous with many different kinds of disposal services that allowed for the company to grow and grow with a solid base over the course of twenty-eight years. Finally in 1996, the company reported total assets of almost $20 billion with net income close to $200 million. However, even with this growth and solid base, the company was feeling competitive pressures and net income was on the decline.Everyone from local to national collection companies were now charging less to the customer and this was taking a major toll on the gross margins and net income of Waste Management. With a balance sheet that was heavily based on equipment and land Waste Management was beginning to see that the only way to keep the company growing was to use depreciation and salvage value manipu lation to lower the direct hits of these expenses. Now that the issues were becoming large enough to notice, the SEC began stepping in to investigate the operations, assets and accounting methods that were being used.Due to this, the company issued a release saying they would be amending and restating certain periods of their reporting and issuing new form 10-Ks and 10-Qs. Once the restatement occurred and a $3. 5 billion dollar loss was found the company’s incorrect accounting processes were finally exposed. This resulted in net losses for the company as well as debt and equity ratings dropping precipitously. The SEC now launched a formal investigation into the accounting processes and found many misstatements from avoiding depreciation to improper capitalization and failure to accrue to proper liabilities.Many techniques were used and the end result was that many of the management team’s members were named as defendants in this case as it was seen that they were the ones who were primarily responsible for the execution of this fraud. Through the investigation, it was found that Arthur Andersen helped to keep the fraud going by not demanding that PAJEs be undertaken to correct errors. Instead, Arthur Andersen, who viewed Waste Management as their â€Å"jewel† client, entered into an agreement with Waste Mangement to fix these errors in coming years.This constituted an agreement to cover up fraud and Andersen was then sued for civil fraud by the SEC that carried a heavy price. The company stock plunged and Arthur Andersen’s partners were fined and banned from the auditing of public companies for up to five years. This overall lack of internal control and greed in the company ultimately led to a downfall for many partners and managing members at both Andersen and Waste Management. Case Questions: 1) Three conditions are often present when fraud exists.First, management or employees have an incentive or are under pressure, which provi des them a reason to commit the fraud act. Second, circumstances exist – for example, absent or ineffective internal controls or the ability for management to override controls – that provide an opportunity for the fraud to be perpetrated. Third, those involved are able to rationalize the fraud as being consistent with their personal code of ethics. Some individuals possess an attitude, character, or set of ethical values that allows them to knowingly commit a fraudulent act.Using hindsight, identify factors present at Waste Management that are indicative of each of the three fraud conditions: incentives, opportunities, and attitudes. Incentive Management teams of publicly traded companies are always under enormous pressure from shareholders to meet and exceed earnings expectations. Many shareholders view year over year growth, and performance vs. earnings as a sign of health of the company they’ve invested in. The pressure on management teams is compounded when poor results could easily spell the end of an executive’s tenure with the company.In the case of Waste Management during the 1990’s, founder & CEO Dean Buntrock created and nurtured an entire culture of fraud. While Waste Management continued to produce false numbers to the public, Buntrock used company money to make charitable contributions and present himself as a decent, ethical person (Securities and Exchange Commission: 2002). He received large amounts of money while he perpetrated the fraud, and his executive team was incentivized for their role as well. Opportunity At the time the fraud existed, internal controls were almost non-existent.The management team employed a number of improper accounting practices that did not comply with GAAP. As stated earlier, CEO Dean Buntrock not only allowed internal controls to be bypassed, he encouraged them to be ignored and shaped accounting policy with the sole purpose of making the targeted earnings numbers every year. The auditing firm, Arthur Andersen, LLP, was also shown to have complicity. The partners at Andersen knew that the company’s policies were not compliant so they provided Waste Management with proposed adjusting entries to their books.Waste Management refused to make the adjustments so Andersen had Waste Management sign off on a list of 32 steps the company must do to change its practices. The document legally constituted an agreement among the two parties and clearly shows that Andersen was aware of fraud that Waste Management had covered up in the past. Furthermore, Andersen did not stand up to the company and continued to issue unqualified audit opinions. Andersen was motivated by greed, as they billed Waste Management over $25M in seven years.Additionally, until 1997, Waste Management had never hired a CFO or CAO that had not worked for Andersen in the past. During the 1990’s when the fraud occurred, 14 former Andersen employees worked for Waste Management, many in key positions. The circumstances existed so that an outsider, who could wind up being a whistleblower, seemed to not be allowed into the inner circle where the fraud was happening. Waste Management could be ensured by the high fees it was paying Andersen that the company would have a steady stream of potential finance/accounting employees who understood the fraud and how to continue to perpetrate it.Attitude One’s attitude and ethical beliefs shape how they perform under circumstances in life. The two main reasons why people choose to act unethically, like in the Waste Management case, are that their standards are different than society as a whole, or the person chooses to act in a selfish manner (Securities and Exchange Commission: 2002). Greed, praise and recognition can all be motivating factors for someone to behave unethically. Waste Management’s Dean Buntrock possessed a set of ethics (or lack thereof) that allowed him to commit fraud.He was clearly motivated by gre ed, was selfish, and had no issues with defrauding investors. He acquired almost $17M in personal wealth while investors lost billions of dollars of value in their shares of Waste Management. He also perhaps rationalized his behavior. He may have calculated that his odds of being detected were very low since he knew that the auditors at Arthur Andersen would issue an unqualified audit opinion regardless of how creative he got with his accounting fraud. The auditors also clearly acted unethically in their dealings with Waste Management.Even though they were aware that fraud was occurring, as stated above, they continued to issue unqualified audit opinion and bend to the will of Waste Management executives. The auditors never stood up to the company, most likely out of fear of losing a client that paid them almost $25M a year in fees. Additionally, Waste Management had a track record of hiring Andersen auditors into high level position, so they were acting out of greed as well. 2) Rev iew Waste Management’s Consolidated Balance Sheet as of December 31, 1996.Identify accounts whose balances were likely based on significant management estimation techniques. Describe the reasons why estimates were required for each of the accounts identified. Waste Management had several fixed/long-term asset accounts whose balances were based on estimation techniques. On the December 31, 1996 balance sheet, the Vehicles and equipment account is grossly overstated. The company â€Å"avoided depreciation expenses on their garbage trucks by both assigning unsupported and inflated salvage values and extending their useful lives† (Arens: 2011).In other words, company management inflated their â€Å"vehicles and equipment† account through estimation. With regards to the Land – disposal sites account, Waste Management also assigned random salvage values for many assets that had no salvage values at all. Estimates are required because there is no way to determin e exactly what the resell value of a truck is 10 years from now. The accounting team must use their best judgment to estimate values based on past and present data.The realm of value estimation is a significant gray area for accountants where fraud can be committed. To that end, accumulated depreciation is another account that is grossly understated on the December 31, 1996 balance sheet. Accountants must estimate depreciation values based on a particular method of depreciation, but they can lessen the effect of depreciation on the balance sheet by artificially increasing the salvage value of assets and/or by lengthening the estimated useful life of an asset.Again, estimates are required because an accountant’s assumption is necessary to determine the expected values because of the impossibility of predicting what will happen in the future. 3. Describe why accounts involving significant management estimation are generally viewed as inherently risky. a. When dealing with manag ement estimations, many different factors always come into play which are not always easily understandable. Management has the ability to use many different models, industry standards, and internally developed methods in order to properly or improperly state the item under estimation.For this reason, auditors must always have some kind of backup to show both consistency and a clear line of numbers, methods and evaluations in order to arrive at an ending number of estimation. However, as easy as this may be to say, in the presence of fraud, numbers can be manipulated and tweaked to arrive at certain assumptions that can give the appearance of consistency while still not having a proper base. Along with this, auditors, while well versed and understanding of industries, do not have the time nor the knowledge to properly assess every single factor that may be used in the valuation of management estimates.Management estimation techniques vary far and wide and when dealing with a client t hat uses techniques not akin to the industry, it can be very hard to truly feel comfortable about the numbers used and the valuations presented. 4. Review Auditing Standards (AU) Section 342, Auditing Accounting Estimates, and describe the auditor’s responsibilities for examining management-generated estimates. Also, AU Section 342 provides guidance to assist auditors in examining estimates. Describe the techniques commonly used by auditors to evaluate the reasonableness of management’s estimates. b.According to the PCAOB, an auditor is responsible for considering all of the subjective and objective factors that go into the management estimates. The auditor must obtain sufficient evidence to reasonable agree that: i. All estimates that could be material to the notes have been developed ii. They are reasonable given the circumstances iii. The estimates are presented in conformity with applicable accounting principles and are properly disclosed (PCAOB US: 1989). There ar e, of course, a plethora of guidelines offered to the auditors relating to this inherently risky field of auditing management estimates.However, these guidelines not only help to evaluate the actual estimates and their uses, but also help to look into the reasonability of the estimates and the need for them. In order to assess the reasonability of an estimate an auditor must have the information from prior years present and available so as to compare both the inputs and the outputs of all the estimates (PCAOB US: 1989). This allows for the auditor to see if there are any divergences or deviations from the usual historical outputs of the estimates.This also can give the auditor the ability to see what inputs are able to be manipulated or subject to potential bias. This insight can prove very necessary when so many numbers and formulas are involved. Along with evaluating the historical inputs/outputs and the processes used, the auditor should have their own view on the estimates so as to agree upon the use of the estimate. In order to truly have one’s own view, the past is of course necessary but the future transactions and events can help to further enhance the reasonability of the estimate (or malign the use of it, if such be the case).These subsequent events can help an auditor to decide if there should be other key factors used or if changes in the business and industry should become significant in the assumptions. The last idea, and offering, by these auditing standards is to hire a specialist (PCAOB US: 1989). Of course this is something should be done if, after review, the auditor determines that they need further expertise or analysis on the assumptions. At times, an industry can be some complex and calculations so convoluted that an auditor has no choice but to hire an industry professional to liaise with regarding the factors and computations. . The Waste Management fraud primarily centered on inappropriate estimates of salvage values and useful lives for property and equipment. Describe techniques Andersen auditors could have used to assess the reasonableness of those estimates used to create Waste Management’s financial statements. Arthur Andersen auditors failed miserably on the audit inspection of waste management from 1992-1997. The auditors failed to realize the inappropriate salvage estimates and depreciation values of Waste Management’s Equipment.The first thing the auditors should have done was to check the accuracy of the estimates. The auditors should have checked every year in order to make sure the estimates were accurate. By checking the accuracy of the estimates Andersen Auditors would have seen in 1996 that Waste Management changed the salvage values of their equipment. Waste Management was allowed to change the salvage value, but the auditors should have made sure that it was a reasonable change, which is it was not. Next, the auditors would have been able to check these estimates on industry and governmental standards.By checking against the governmental and industry standards the auditors would have once again been able to see that the salvage value was unreasonable. Another technique Andersen could have used was to get an independent estimate. By getting an independent estimate the auditors would have been able to compare the independent estimate to the salvage value that Waste Management was applying to their equipment. These numbers would have been able to be compared and evaluated to each other in order to figure out the proper salvage amount to use. The auditor is responsible for checking these numbers and they did not do their job.Also, the auditors could have done some more research on the items being salvaged and applied the fair value to each one of the items. This way the auditors would be able to back up these different estimates when comparing them to the estimates given by Waste Management. Andersen should have also seen red flags when these new salvage n umbers were given. They were not historically accurate and were completely off from prior years. Part of the reason Andersen did not do anything was due to former Andersen auditors working for Waste Management. Andersen needs to be independent and they were not.By not being independent from Waste Management it caused them to â€Å"overlook† an estimate that caused stock holders to lose billions of dollars. 6. Several of the Waste Management accounting personnel were formerly employed by the company’s auditor, Arthur Andersen. What are the risks associated with allowing former auditors to work for a client in key accounting positions? Research Section 206 of the Sarbanes? Oxley Act of 2002 and provide a brief summary of the restrictions related to the ability of a public company to hire accounting personnel who were formerly employed by the company’s audit firm.As stated in the case several of Waste Management accounting personnel use to work for Arthur Andersen as an auditors. This led to many problems for both companies. The auditor needs to remain independent because of two main reasons. One is to make sure the audit is done unbiased and to make sure the client is unable to trick the auditor. If the client knows what the auditor is looking for than they can manipulate the numbers in order to trick the auditor from catching these manipulations. The main risk with this practice is fraud. This can take place by the auditor or the client.If the client use to work for the auditor, just like in this place, the client will know exactly how the audits are done and exactly what the auditor is looking for. This can cause a client to post fraudulent numbers to numerous documents. The client will be able to insert these fraudulent numbers in to documents that the auditor will not look at. Also, the auditor can cook the books as well so to speak. The auditor cannot check all of the documents due to being friends with the client, due to some of the fo rmer auditors working for the client now.Also, the auditor can get a little lazy when it comes to doing the audit. What is meant by this is that the auditor might not do such a thorough job due to the fact that that a former auditor is doing the financial statements and they know exactly how to do them. According to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 Section 206, the SEC has placed restrictions on former auditors working for a public company as accounting personnel. The section talks about conflict of interest in regards to this issue. SEC. 206. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST.Section 10A of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 U. S. C. 78j–1), as amended by this Act, is amended by adding at the end the following: ‘‘(l) CONFLICTS OF INTEREST. —It shall be unlawful for a registered public accounting firm to perform for an issuer any audit service required by this title, if a chief executive officer, controller, chief financial officer, chief accounting officer, or any person serving in an equivalent position for the issuer, was employed by that registered independent public accounting firm and participated in H. R. 3763—31 ny capacity in the audit of that issuer during the 1-year period preceding the date of the initiation of the audit. ’’ (Sarbanes Oxley: 2002). Basically, section 206 states, that any public accounting firm cannot hire a CEO, Controller, CFO, Chief Accounting Officer that was a formerly employed by the auditor that is performing the audit for that publically traded company. That is the only restriction that is placed by section 206. As you can see on this case there are many risks and problems that are involved when a public traded company has formed audit members on their staff. 7.Discuss possible reasons why the Andersen partners allegedly allowed Waste Management executives to avoid recording the identified accounting errors. How could accounting firms ensure that auditors do not succumb to similar pressu res on other audit engagements? Waste Management was a â€Å"crown jewel† client, and Arthur Andersen had been their auditor since before the company went public in 1971. Andersen and Waste Management had a long history of working together. Management officials at Waste Management were previous employees of Andersen and Anderson did not want to lose one of their most important clients.From 1991 to 1997, Anderson received $7. 5 million in audit fees and $11. 8 million in fees for tax, attest work, regulatory issues, and consulting services. In addition, $6 million was billed to Waste Management’s headquarters for non-audit fees. In order to please the client, and avoid losing them, certain fraudulent events occurred. Andersen advised Management to make â€Å"Proposed Adjusting Journal Entries (PAJEs) to adjust expense and income accounts in the financial statements. Management failed to comply with Andersen’s advice and they entered into a secret agreement to wr ite off the errors.The agreement â€Å"Summary of Action Steps,† contained incorrect accounting practices and listed 32 steps that the company must perform to correct the practices. It would allow Waste Management to cover up past frauds by committing future frauds. Andersen was hoping that this would benefit the company. However, the auditors did seem to ignore that refused to correct known accounting misstatements. Company auditors and management had personal relationships, so management was able to pressure auditors. Management knew what they were doing because they were former auditors.Forcing the changes in accounting practices could result in an end to Waste Management as a company and Andersen would lose that income. In order to avoid these situations, Sarbanes Oxley introduced Section 203 that helps with issues that a firm might face. Section 203 includes partner rotation, which forces the audit partner on the assignment to rotate after 5 years. However, the rule has an exception to partner rotation for firms with no more than five public company audit clients and fewer than ten partners. These rules apply as of the first day of a company's first fiscal year beginning after May 6, 2003, with time served as the lead and concurring partners prior to May 6, 2003 being included in determining rotation periods† (Alali ; Romero: 2012). Audit firms can also give employee training on ethics so they are aware of company values. Bibliography Alali, F. , ; Romero, S. (2012). Auditor changes before, during, and post-section 203 of sarbanes-oxley act. Internal Auditing, 27(1), 25-30. Retrieved from http://bluehawk. monmouth. edu:2048/? url=/docview/1009737322? accountid=12532Arens, Elder, Beasley, Auditing And Assurance Services: An Integrated Approach- 14th Edition. Chapter 4. Congress, United States. Sarbanes Oxley 2002. 2002. fl1. findlaw. com/news. findlaw. com/cnn/†¦ /sarbanesoxley072302. pdf (accessed March 2, 2013). PCAOB US. 1989. â€Å"P CAOB AU Section 342 Auditing Accounting Estimates. † PCAOB. Accessed March 2, 2013. http://pcaobus. org/Standards/Auditing/Pages/AU342. aspx. Securities and Exchange Commission, Waste Management Founder, Five Other Former Top Officers Sued for Massive Fraud, http://www. sec. gov/news/headlines/wastemgmt6. htm (March 2002).

Inclusion in the Classroom A Critical Review

Issues environing the integrating of pupils with disablements into the general instruction schoolrooms are explored in this research paper. The history of inclusion if first examined by following the motion from mainstreaming to the least restrictive environment and eventually to full inclusion of pupils in age-appropriate general instruction schoolrooms. Next, the current place of inclusion and its topographic point in instruction in Canada is discussed. Besides, issues confronting pupils, their households and instructors are addressed and suggestions to get the better of them are provided. Finally, the pros and cons of inclusive instruction are presented and it is concluded that the benefits of inclusion overshadow the costs of including particular needs pupils into regular schoolrooms. Besides, inclusion tends to better the overall educational experience for both particular needs pupils every bit good as regular pupils in the schoolroom. Keywords: integrating, disablements, inclusion, inclusive instruction Inclusion in the Classroom: A Critical Review Education and inclusion Education is the basis of responsible citizenship in most well-established democracies. Post Confederation of Canada, the authorities and ordinary citizens have recognized the significance of instruction and hold made public commissariats for its cosmopolitan handiness to kids and young person at the simple and high school degrees. School is the topographic point that provides a community puting for kids and young person by assisting them develop their cognition, by advancing citizenship and edifice societal relationships. Hence, when a school is inclusive, communities become inclusive excessively. Educating kids is non merely a basic human right, but a vehicle for societal inclusion and alteration. The recent thrust toward inclusive instruction is more than merely about ‘special educational demands ‘ . It reflects alterations in the societal and political clime wherein a new attack characterizes believing about differences. The chief purpose of inclusive instruction is to guarantee that all pupils participate in the schoolrooms with their same-age equals and develop emotionally, socially, intellectually and physically to their fullest ability. Inclusive instruction is a developing construct. Usually it is understood as instruction of kids with disablements in regular schools, but it is a much broader thought. It refers to an instruction system which continually works at increasing engagement and taking exclusion from all the facets of schooling in a manner which makes a pupil feel no different from any other pupil and which ensures academic accomplishment ( Booth, 2002 ) . Inclusive instruction makes the school a topographic point of instruction for all pupils, and manages to run into the single demands of each student better. It should be able to take the school to seek ways to educate all kids in the most ordinary ways possible Inclusive schools put into topographic point steps to back up all pupils to to the full take part in the life of the school with their age equals. Where barriers to full engagement exist, inclusive schools are able to alter their organisation, and adapt the physical premises and elements within schoolrooms to the demands of each pupil. The primary rule of inclusive instruction is that ordinary schools should supply instruction every bit platitude as possible for all immature people while accommodating it to the demands of each. It consists of puting learning-impaired pupils in general schoolrooms and incorporating their acquisition experience with pupils in the general instruction categories ( Turnbull et al. , 2004 ) . Furthermore, there is a differentiation between inclusion, where pupils spend most of their clip in the general instruction schoolroom ; and mainstreaming where pupils with particular demands are educated in the general schoolroom during specific clip periods based on their accomplishments. The inclusive instruction theoretical account challenges the particular instruction theoretical account, chiefly the belief that differences in academic or societal accomplishment between pupils with and without disablements are excessively hard to be accommodated in regular educational scenes ; that particular scenes are more effectual than regular schoolroom environments for pupils with disablements ; and that labelling is necessary for appropriate service. Advocates of inclusion argue that the rights of and benefits to scholars with disablements who are included in regular schoolroom environments outweigh the challenges faced by instructors in such a state of affairs. With the support of decently trained resource instructors, regular schoolroom instructors should be able to work efficaciously with all pupils. History of inclusive instruction The history of suiting the demands of diverse scholars in the modern-day educational scenes parallels the development of societal and psychological systems ( Kaufman, 1999 ) . Smith et Al. ( 1998 ) sum up this history as holding moved through three stages: segregation, integrating and inclusion. However, late a planetary displacement in believing on methods schools use in reacting to the demands of diverse scholars has taken topographic point. Particular instruction found its beginning in society ‘s concern with human rights following World War II, and by the 1950 ‘s educational arrangement based upon minority or disablement position was a debated issue ( Smith et al. , 1998 ) . Thus, particular instruction owes much of its beginning to the Civil Rights Movement, when the integration of American schools validated a parallel human rights statement against segregation based on physical/mental abilities ( Friends et al. , 1998 ) . While both Canada and the United States presented duty to the states and provinces for implementing educational statute law, The Education for All Children Act ( 1975 ) steered in a more inclusive theoretical account of particular instruction which supported free and appropriate instruction for all kids in the least restrictive and non- discriminatory environment. Written single educational programs ( IEPs ) to aim single demands were designed and implemented ( Salend, 2001 ) . In Canada, indirect support for greater inclusion of diverse scholars came from the 1982 Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which challenged favoritism based on mental or physical disablement. By the 1980 ‘s most states and districts were supplying some type of particular instruction through a combination of regular and individualised environments ( Dworet & A ; Bennet, 2002 ) . Current place Inclusive instruction is today ‘s educational â€Å" hot † subjects, and there are a assortment of places on inclusive instruction. One end is to assist staff and pupils gain an apprehension of all groups present in the local and national communities. Besides, inclusive instruction is sometimes equated with mainstreaming where particular needs pupils are placed in regular schoolroom state of affairss. In recent old ages advocates for inclusive instruction have argued that every bit many as 40 % of pupils with rational disablements are still being educated in unintegrated scenes while they have a right to inclusive instruction ( Porter, 2004 ) . A reappraisal of current educational policies in most Canadian states shows that inclusion of pupils with disablements in regular schoolrooms is the dominant policy ( Hutchinson, 2007 ) , although most legal power maintain segregated schoolrooms for those pupils who might profit from such arrangements or whose parents prefer such arrangements ( Ontario Ministry of Education, 2000 ) . Researchers and pedagogues advocate that all kids, including those with disablements, be educated in regular schoolrooms that reflect the diverseness of Canadian society and its inclusive values ( Lupart & A ; Webber, 2002 ) . While such advocators agree that pupils with disablements may non be able to carry through the same curricular ends as the other pupils, they believe that inclusive instruction enables them to be treated with self-respect and allows others to acknowledge their concealed abilities. In recent old ages, there does look to hold been progress in the extent to which kids and young person are educated in regular versus particular category arrangements. However, while inclusion is progressively being accepted as the preferable attack for educating all scholars, other attacks to instruction go on in many countries of the state. Executions of inclusive patterns are inconsistent from state to province, community to community, and between school systems ( e.g. , English, French, Public, and Catholic ) . The incompatibility of attack has resulted in confusion and uncertainness among parents and instructors. Besides, many pedagogues believe that inclusive agencies conveying particular needs pupils into ‘regular ‘ schoolrooms with ‘normal ‘ kids. The job with this position lies in the fact that there are no ‘regular ‘ schoolrooms with ‘normal ‘ kids. All kids are alone, and so are their demands and abilities. Therefore, it is p erfectly necessary for instructors to supply pupils with individualised attending that will assist them develop in peculiar countries and it ‘s of import to construct success into each pupil ‘s single acquisition experiences. The particular instruction policy that prevails in most legal powers fails to guarantee the committedness of instructors and their schools to inclusion. In many parts of the state, inclusive instruction is considered an ‘add on ‘ to the bing particular instruction system, and it therefore may non be a precedence at all. Besides, effectual schemes are non widely in topographic point to further passages from early childhood scheduling to school and from high school to employment or to other post-secondary options. Many particular demands pupils who do graduate from high school, have no clear acknowledgment of the accomplishments gained or faculty members learned in order to derive entree to post-secondary plans. Issues for pupils and households Young people with continue to be denied entree to regular instruction in many instances. ‘Zero tolerance ‘ and other behavioral policies result in the segregation of pupils, particularly for those with ambitious behavior issues. Procedures for pupil appraisal and labelling create administrative loads for instructors while making a stigma for pupils. Bing identified as a particular needs pupil carries with it the menace of embarrassment and being bullied. Procedures for deriving entree to disability-specific supports ( e.g. , attenders, address specializers, assistive engineerings ) and other resources needed for success in regular schoolrooms are typically restrictive and non available on an just footing. There are serious concerns in many parts of the state about the insufficiency and inflexibleness of the supports that are available and about the long holds in procuring the supports that may finally come on watercourse. Similarly, alternate pupil testing and other adjustments for pupils are non assured. Parents have a polar function to play as confederates with the instructors, particularly for pupils with particular demands. However, in some instances, deficiency of significant parental engagement is observed and consequences in poorer educational quality for the kid. Issues for instructors Indeed inclusion nowadayss an tremendous challenge to instructors as it brings with it increased anxiousness and excess work load. Individual Education Plans ( IEPs ) are taxing for many instructors and many merely have a limited background in this country. Besides, the practical utility of IEPs is questionable as to whether they do non inform and steer instructional patterns. Normally, there is confusion among instructors and educational helpers about their several functions and duties. Teachers frequently leave the premier duty for educating pupils with important disablements to teacher helpers. However, helpers should be playing a auxiliary and non a lead function. Additionally, instructional supports for instructors on inclusion ( e.g. , learning resources, sample lesson programs, etc. ) are besides needed. However, a deficiency of handiness and even wrongness of such supports has been a concern. Addressing the issues In order to turn to the above mentioned issues ; instructors, parents and kids need assorted sorts of supports. Support for instructors Model schools need to be created highlight community-learning and value diverseness. There needs to be a committedness to run intoing all the values and pedagogical challenges. Flexibility in the course of study every bit good as periodic testing is needed so that instructors can accommodate to the varying demands and abilities of diverse scholars in their schoolrooms. Besides, single educational programs ( IEPs ) need to turn with the kid and any individualised planning should drive instructional pattern and service as a existent usher for the instructor. Regulating constructions need to be more ‘teacher friendly ‘ and sensitive to issues of student-teacher ratio. Besides, touchable resources such as instructor helpers, supportive professionals, schoolroom equipment etc. are needed in order to maintain category sizes manageable without a sense of competition among schools. In add-on to that, school boards should be able to supply instructors with the practical aid and preparation required in order to equilibrate the outlooks of the current course of study every bit good as single pupil demands. Furthermore, instructors and parents need to be more reciprocally supportive of one another. Parents should go on to recommend for quality instruction and inclusive plans for their kids, and should besides include support for instructors and the school within that. Last, development of a theoretical account model for successful inclusion is indispensable, which will affecting decision makers, instructors, resource instructors, teacher helper every bit good as parents. Furthermore, there is a demand for teacher-to-teacher mentoring support every bit good as sharing of thoughts and experiences that will profit the instructors and the pupils in the long tally. Professional development integrated into the regular teacher-training course of study, every bit good as ongoing preparation is required. Besides, Jordan and Stanovick ( 2004 ) place three nucleus concepts to assist do inclusion work at a schoolroom degree: instructors ‘ beliefs about their functions and duties, instructors ‘ sense of efficaciousness, and the corporate belief of the school staff toward inclusive patterns. Support for parents and pupils Parents frequently lack information sing policies and plan offered by the school boards and the authorities. Therefore, instructors and school decision makers need to promote unfastened communicating and support services in order to supply accurate information to parents. Besides, parents will decidedly profit from regular contact with other parents and support bureaus outside the school system. To back up pupils with disablements, school leaders need to make a community of credence and belonging that helps foster positive attitudes towards all pupils. Along with a healthy school environment, equal resources are needed to guarantee that pupil demands are met in a professional and timely mode. Teachers can assist by supplying supportive and flexible acquisition environments in the schoolroom. Besides, prosecuting pupils in active and meaningful undertakings would promote engagement and do instruction gratifying. Effective schemes that work best for pupils with particular demands will work good for all pupils, because every kid in the schoolroom has alone larning demands and a multi-level attack to learning will outdo accomplish the highest potency for all pupils. Finally, to further a general clime of teamwork, instructors should promote and ease equal support where pupils should be able to assist each other and learn from each others ‘ experiences. This will assist them larn to demo regard for and do attempts to suit pupils ‘ demands and strengths. Professionals of inclusion Inclusion has resulted in greater communicating accomplishments, greater societal competency, and greater developmental accomplishments for all particular instruction pupils who have been a portion of the inclusive scene ( Bennett, DeLuca, & A ; Bruns, 1997 ) . A 2nd benefit of inclusion is that handicapped pupils make more friends in the general instruction scene and interact with their pupil equals at a much higher degree non isolated in the particular instruction categories ; inclusion allows handicapped pupils to be an active portion of the larger pupil organic structure. Another advantage is that the costs of inclusion are less over clip than learning the particular instruction pupils in particular instruction categories entirely. Increasingly, this discourse emphasizes scholars ‘ rights every bit good as their demands, and stresses the importance of an instruction free from favoritism and segregation. Academic and societal accomplishment has really been found to be higher in regular instruction with assorted groupings of pupils from diverse backgrounds and abilities scenes ( Will, M.C. 2002 ) . Cons of inclusion Educators who are critical of inclusion argue that puting particular instruction pupils in the general instruction schoolroom may non be good and full-time arrangements in general instruction schoolrooms would forestall some handicapped pupils from obtaining intensive and individualised attending and instruction. Direction in the general instruction category would thin the specialised attending they would usually have in a particular instruction category. Besides, the fiscal resources are non available for inclusion to be effectual ( Fox & A ; Ysseldyke, 1997 ) . Critics of inclusion have asserted that particular instruction financess have non be appropriated to general instruction in a sufficient sum to do inclusion viable in all instances. In other words, in order for inclusion to work, financess need to be available to do inclusion effectual and feasible in the general instruction scene. Another unfavorable judgment of inclusion was that general instruction instructors do non poss ess the needed preparation or makings to learn handicapped pupils efficaciously ( Schumm & A ; Vaughn, 1995 ) . Furthermore, general instruction instructors do non hold chances to work with or join forces with particular instruction instructors and to be after and organize lessons and learning schemes between general and particular instruction instructors. Discussion Inclusion appears to hold created an ideological divide in particular instruction, bespeaking a split on how best to function pupils with disablements under the umbrella of particular and general instruction. The division has caused much argument in the educational community, motivating surveies on the viability of integrating. In the recent argument about inclusion, a premium is placed upon full engagement by all and regard for the rights of others. As to every attack, inclusion excessively has its portion of positives and negatives. As schools implement inclusive patterns, research must go on to find how integrating will impact all pupils ‘ academic and societal advancement. Whether inclusion becomes a portion of the particular instruction continuum for arrangement of pupils with disablements or initiates a useful school system, pedagogues must rethink, restructure, and reorganise their present bringing system to profit all pupils. The benefits of inclusion certainly outweigh the costs. A major benefit of inclusion is that it allows for social integrating of handicapped pupils. Disabled pupils are much less unintegrated and isolated from the general pupil population. This is consistent with the ends and aims of the IDEA and No Child Left Behind Act which specified that all pupils should be treated every bit ; there should be equal protection and equal services. While non ever possible, this is a worthwhile end. Inclusion furthers this end of accomplishing full integrating for all pupils. Inclusion, therefore, consequences in greater societal coherence, a greater sense of empathy, and a greater sense of diverseness. Inclusion is a worthy end that should non be abandoned. Inclusion is important because it ensures equality and non-discrimination on the footing of disablement and allows pupils to have a â€Å" free, appropriate public instruction. † There are pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, to inclusion. Furthermore, pupils and instructors learn tolerance by developing and furthering a sense of community where diverseness and differences are valued. The segregation that consequences from separate particular instruction schoolrooms is avoided and the more interaction there is with persons with differences, the more tolerance, empathy, and apprehension is fostered and developed.

EDU 636 DB4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

EDU 636 DB4 - Essay Example Books are not enough anymore due to advances in technology (Brooks, 1949, p.8). This report would discuss some appropriate instructional media for each level of Bloom’s cognitive domain. The first level is knowledge which is often used to recall information or data. The instructional media appropriate for this level are graphics, charts, photographs, and charts. Using symbols can be very helpful in assisting learner’s to recall valuable information. For example, pre-school children can effectively match a word with a certain object or symbol. The suggested media would not take the place of the teacher but only act as an aid or additional resource for learner. The second level of the cognitive domain is comprehension which involves interpretation of information such as following instructions, rewriting information or explaining in one’s own words material that has been read. Audio media such as podcast or student presentation can help learners realize this cogniti ve domain. If a student can make a power point presentation of a report in class that is very informative, then comprehension is achieved.

Sustainable management futures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Sustainable management futures - Essay Example iv) The employee involved in whistle blowing should have stumbled with credible documentary evidence that convinces observers of the correctness of the circumstance where the product brings grave harm to the public. iv) The whistle blower should have a valid reason in believing that by informing the public, the necessary corrective measures will effected. v) The situation involving death or serious body injuries should be treat as severe than non physical harm and that the whistle blower is ready to take responsibility. Loyalty and integrity: The role they play in whistle blowing Personal loyalty is steadfastness of an individual in asserting allegiance, perseverance and upholding faithfulness to others. Integrity on the other hand refers to consistency of truthfulness to ones value system and moral principles by showing this consistency in ones day to day life. Loyalty informs the power of mutual respect, being confidential and keeping promises. In some cases, loyalty can be misplac ed or blind so that it diminishes from being a virtue as harm and not good emanates. Loyalty puts the profit motive of a firm in collision with loyalty to values, beliefs and ethos. Whistle blowing is not a capricious issue as it can cause an end to organizations or a person’s existence. ... It comprises employee protection for disclosing some information including evidence of activities that are illegal or adverse to the environment.They also protects employees from employer retribution like dismissal and promotional blackmail. The victimised individuals can obtain a remedy in the courts for compensation. The prescribed persons are the registrar for data protection, executives for health and safety, environmental agency, certification officer, and trade and industry secretary of state. Is â€Å"Whistle blowing a negative or positive force within society?† Whistle blowing has been a useful force to the society since many employers have started to constitute internal processes of reporting emerging issues. There is a new desire by companies to solve problems internally before they become public. Employers would find it apprehensive when employees choose to use the Act and not the internal processes created. Though it does not force employers to come up with policie s regarding disclosures, many do not know the existence of such policies. Examining the extent the ethics of lying in business transactions Lying in most situations is indispensable. It is the only way to keep the business moving when the stocks and profits are crippling. Investors would hear none of the failures that is shouted truthfully. Robert Diamond the CEO of Barclays Group did not acknowledge the deception that the bank gave to the London Interbank Offered Rate which affected the transactions of a huge amount. They had misreported interest rates. Even the bonuses to be paid to employees were clawed back. Mr. Diamond was forced to resign. Lying is unethical and results in poor business practices as seen the case

Health care and the internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health care and the internet - Essay Example Health information seeking will also be helpful for people who cannot afford a regular doctor or insurance. One of the anticipated shifts is that health care will be accessible for everyone regardless of the status or income of the individual due to consumer health information seeking. Poor people will not be able to get information themselves through internet rather they will have to rely on hospitals and doctors. The exchange of information between hospitals will be more helpful for poor people as they can go to any hospitals and their health records will be available there. For middle or lower middle class people who have access to technology can make use of health information seeking by determining, on a basic level, their health problems and then treating it through a pharmacist. People who can afford health care insurance will be getting better quality of self service because of exchange of information between hospitals. Mutual databases of hospitals will increase the service time and also provide superior health care to all people whether rich or poor. This is how health information seeking will affect everyone. With the advent of internet, health information seeking has increased greatly. People can go online and get all the information they need. Doctors give suggestion on forums and everyone can read them. Simple diseases like influenza and viral flu can be treated through simple treatment. This is an emerging trend in consumer health information seeking. Physicians are however the most trusted source of health related information. People go to them asking for advice so they remain the most authoritative source of health information. An emerging trend in health information seeking is through pharmacist. They can also provide good health care information. People are also going for public health centers in order to get health related information. Health information

Analysis and Summary of Health Risk information about Abilene Research Paper

Analysis and Summary of Health Risk information about Abilene Community - Research Paper Example From this population, the approximate number of people considered homeless is 625-1,875 per night. This is based on a formulae used by Housing and Urban Development to determine the number of homeless people in an area. Housing and Urban Development uses 0.5%-1.5% of the overall population to determine the number of homeless people. Local homeless population in Abilene has been determined to be around 1000 people. Hope Haven Incorporation confirms that the number of homeless people served and turned away every year is approximately 1000 (AHHI, n.d). Homelessness in Abilene is different from that observed in urban areas considering the living conditions and even the race. According to the National Coalition for the Homeless, in urban areas, most homeless people are African-American males. The definition of homelessness by the federal government and the perception of homelessness by the people also affect the face of homelessness in Abilene. Abilene is a semi-rural city with white sing le males as most of its homeless people. The federal government considers homelessness as lack of regular, fixed and enough night-time residence. Most people have the impression that homelessness is living on the streets or in shelters. In Abilene the homeless are likely to be hidden because it is a semi-rural city. In such areas, homeless people mostly live in make-shift lean-tos, abandoned houses or in automobiles. Under these conditions, the homeless lack water and electricity (Eiserer, n.d). Additionally, homeless people in semi-rural and rural areas are less likely to live in shelters or on the streets. Most of them live with their relatives in substandard or overcrowded housing (Eiserer, n.d). This status increases the number homelessness related diseases, especially when they go unrecognized. It increases the risk of infection and affects control of already existing diseases. Abilene community also has the problem of overcrowding in elementary schools. Abilene has been experi encing increased numbers of student enrolment over the years. This however, has not been accompanied by increased elementary educational facilities leading to overcrowding. Because of overcrowding, AISD has proposed a boundary rezoning that is expected to balance the number of students in different schools. Overcrowding is expected be eased at Jackson elementary school, overcrowding is expected to create more space at Ward Elementary, and increase enrolment at Reagan and Dyess. This rezoning is expected to affect Dyess, Jackson, Ward, Bassetti and Reagan Elementary schools (Powell, 2013). Overcrowding causes health problems both directly and indirectly. It enhances the spread of infectious diseases directly, and causes strain on existing facilities, which then cause various types of health problems and diseases. Community Health Nursing Diagnosis 1 Health Risk: Higher Prevalence or Existence of Homeless Diseases than expected The conditions of the houses that the homeless people liv e in are a contributing factor to their health status. Hope Haven Incorporation indicates that in a year, approximately 1000 homeless people are served or turned away (AHHI, n.d). This could be exclusive of other homeless people who could be living with their relatives, in abandoned houses, make-shift lean-tos and in automobiles among other areas. It means that the number of homeless people that the city planners and charity organizations are aware of could be more than 1000. Homeless people suffer from various diseases such as tooth decay, trauma, respiratory infections, vision disturbances, trauma, sexually transmitted diseases, substance abuse,

Comparative essay on the North, South, and West from 1865 to 1900 A.D

Comparative on the North, South, and West from 1865 to 1900 A.D - Essay Example At the end of the Civil War in 1865, America was not yet the 50-state nation it is now. It was but an adolescent alliance of 35 tension-filled states of 24 victorious and predominantly northern Union States and 11 Southern states that failed to secede as the Confederate States of America. After the war, a combination of events fuelled an economic boom that pushed the population of the country from the North-South axis on the Eastern end towards the West. The Civil War had been a battle that pitted the rich industrial North allied to the seat of government in the East, against the agricultural South. The expansion to the West, however, helped temper the nation’s simmering post-War energies. Specific events in these regions during the period shaped the U.S. geographically, socially, economically, and politically and prepared the ground for our ascent to worldwide supremacy (Sobel 188-89). The powerful North grew on the backs of tough, hard-working European immigrants who industrialized and enriched their way to economic dominance. Perhaps the harsh climate helped, but it was really geography that made the region the seat of U.S. industrial production and wealth by the late 19th century: Pennsylvania oil, steel mills in Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, manufacturing and mining in Wisconsin and Minnesota – all bonded with the financial might of New York under the expert, at times misguided and corrupt, governance by elected officials in D.C., the nation’s capital (Carnegie 653-657). Civil War victory and Reconstruction made an already strong region even stronger as industrialists, bankers, and businessmen took advantage of opportunities to reconstruct a devastated South. Victory also entrenched the north-based Republican Party as a political power that dominated American politics, producing two-thirds of post-Civil War Presidents (Sobel 201-7). The

Managing and leading people Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Managing and leading people - Essay Example The management team, led by a manager helps to harness, support, and offer direction to what is to be done within and outside the organization. The manager does the role of directing individuals to engage in driving the vision, mission, and maintaining the core values of the organization so that it tries succeeds in a competitive market (SIMS 2002, p. 65). Managers participate in a critical role of delivering performance within an organization. A consistent delivery of performance is what dictates the level of performance of a manager. A manager is like a father in a family. He appears to be the breadwinner. He takes less credit now of great success but an entire blame in the case of underperformance in an organization. This means that the work of a manager ranges between performance and underperformance. The manager is the leader of the teams within an organization. Any performance level is dictated by the strategies put forth by an organization, and the ultimate decisions and pathways of meeting these strategies as set by manager. Therefore, the manager is the carrier of every managerial role that is supposed to be realized within an organization. The manager is the sole head when deliberating on the goals and objectives of an organization. Through an effective management of an organization, the manager will be able to relay the best approaches and mechanisms of performance to be adopted by the individual workers in an organization. The manager takes the role of identifying how the individual workers and groups contribute towards fulfillment of the goals and objectives set by an organization. The organizational values are an observance of the manger in charge of an organization. Management involves almost every aspect of living within an organization, and is taken care of by the manager in charge. An organization has its own values and value systems that dictate the nature and code of living, working, and interaction within an

Accounts Sba Essay Example for Free

Accounts Sba Essay The aim of my project is for me to arrive at a comprehensive understanding of the financial sector of the business world. To draw up the financial records for the year 2009 for Jen’s Supermarket and to comment on the entity’s performance using appropriate tools of Analysis Description and Overview Jen’s Supermarket is a developed and simulated entity owned by Jenevonne Kirton, who is the sole proprietor. Jen’s Supermarket is a developed supermarket which sells a variety of food items and miscellaneous goods, serving most of the island in its convenient location. The supermarket employ fifteen staff along with Ms. The capital at beginning was 202800 while at end it was 208165 which showed an increase by 5365 at the end of the month. Suggestions/Recommendations Current Ratio It is recommended that Jen’s Supermarket 1. Uses the excess money to expand the business by opening another supermarket. 2. Introduce new product to the business and purchase new equipment. Gross Profit It is suggested that Jen’s Supermarket should 1. Source cheaper suppliers to facilitate the demand of goods so profitability would be greater at the end of the month. 2. Offer new promotions every week and offer the customers raffles at a chance to win prizes at the end of the year. These are given to help Jen’s Supermarket increase gross profit and sales. Conclusion It is clear that Jen’s Supermarket keeps adequate records for the business to demonstrate the profitability over the financial period for the month. It could however, increase the current ratio and gross profit by incorporating the suggestions/recommendations outlined. Nevertheless Jen’s Supermarket made a good net profit for the month of December in 2009. Overall based on the performance of the business Jen’s Supermarket was able to make a profit of 6365 despite the low sales of 104 850.

Morality in Politics Essay Example for Free

Morality in Politics Essay Civic virtue is the formation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community. This term was important to Aristotle’s theories on politics. He felt that all humans should take pleasure in civic virtue and that it was essential for living â€Å"the good life†. Today, our democratic government is well-suited to promote civic virtue and participation of all people in the country. Although times have changed since Aristotle’s days, this ideology can be seen actively in our society. One of the main ideas in Aristotle’s philosophy was teleos, or the purpose or goal of something. To fully understand something, we must also understand its teleos. For example, I have an apple. I know that it is red, kind of round, and grows on a tree, but the real purpose or teleos of that apple to me is food. As far as humans go, Aristotle says that humans are meant to be happy. To be happy, humans must live a life of virtue, which means they always choose what is morally good. Humans have the abilities to think and speak, and therefore decide what is good and bad, right and wrong, etc. People that may think they are living a good life but are not making moral decisions are not truly happy in Aristotle’s eyes. Politics provides a place for people to interact with each other, talk about what is right and wrong, just or unjust, and to make laws reflecting these things. It allows people to participate in their lives, make ethical decisions, and fulfill their happiness potential. Politics is dynamic, unlike math or science that are concrete and unchanging. People can work with each other in politics and work for the greater good. The development of civic virtue allows for a person to relate to their community. It helps them understand their ties to the community and responsibility within it. It helps them see beyond their own personal interests. Some examples of civic virtue would be voting, volunteering, or going to a town meeting. Today, anyone can participate in these things, but Aristotle believed differently. He held that women and slaves were not eligible to participate in politics, and very young men were not ready to participate because they did not understand how the society worked yet. Because of this, a small number of people in his time actually participated in politics compared to today. The American democratic government is well suited for civic virtue. The first reason is that everyone can participate, which means that everyone has the opportunity to become happy people living their life to the fullest. Anyone, provided they are 18 and a citizen, can vote. They can vote for the candidate they feel will represent their moral views and put them into action. People can run for office and put their views to work. Another reason is freedom of speech. Americans have the opportunity to speak freely about issues and share their opinions with others. This helps them create those habits of morality that become a part of their civic virtue. A third reason is the freedom to assemble. Any person can start a club or a group to meet with others. Active participation in public life is essential to civic virtue. A group may be a philanthropy group aimed at helping others. Reciprocity or giving back to the community is another key element of civic virtue. Virtue is closely related to free will. Through active participation, people develop their moral compass and they develop their ideas of what is right and wrong, and their habits of how to react in situations accordingly. People develop their own morality. How can one legislate free will? You cannot. But the legal system can shape morality. By setting laws in certain ways, people will develop their moral views around them. Laws can shape habits by reducing the frequency of certain acts. Giving prison time, fines, probation, and so on can help people learn that they do not want to do the things that caused those punishments. Laws can shape morality as well because people naturally draw influence from other sources. Some may create their moral background on the basis of religion or their family, but the law can be one of those influences as well. The legal system is important for developing morality in society and promoting civic virtue. Civic virtue is important in society. By actively participating in the community, Aristotle believes that people will be ultimately happy. The true purpose of humans is to be happy, and civic virtue is the pathway to this happiness. The American government gives many opportunities for people to participate in both politics and the community, which promotes civic virtue.

Inventory Management of Nepalese Public Enterprises

Inventory Management of Nepalese Public Enterprises CHAPTER-2 Review of Literature There are many researches made in inventory Management of Nepalese Public enterprises and Private enterprises. Most of them has made on the manufacturing enterprises. In this chapter attempts has been made to present the review of literature regarding inventory management. 2.1 Conceptual Framework Inventory Management The writer (Saxena, 2009, p. 2) defines inventory as any kind of idol resource that has potential economic value considered as locked up capital. Inventory is a list of goods and materials which is available in stock by business (Saxena, 2009). Other write (Li, 2007, p. 175) defines inventory as the stock of any items or resources used in an organization. Stock consists of all goods and materials that are stored by an organization which is kept for future use (Waters, 2003). According to (Roy, 2005, p. 100) inventory is list of goods or items. Inventory management is the active control program which allows the management of sales, purchases and payments (Inventorymanagement). The author (Saxena, 2009, p. 2) refers inventory management as a process of managing raw materials, semi-finished products and finished-products by a firm. The inventory management is a set of the process and policies that determines what inventory level should be maintained, what stock should be replenished and how large order should be (Li, 2007, p. 175). According to (Toomey, 2003, p. 1) inventory management is a branch of business management which concerned in planning and controlling inventories. Effective stock management means providing the desired stock service level or maximizing your profit while at the same time keeping your total stock costs as low as possible by; Selecting products that initially sell, well and discontinuing those that stop selling. Purchasing the right quantity (how much to buy) Purchasing at the right time (when to buy) Keeping your total inventory investment in balance with the expected levels of sales To control costs and improve profit, it is necessary to actively manage every asset we own. And it is particularly true of the management of goods and material we buy and keep on land either far our own use or for resale. The goal of inventory management is to increase profit on inventory while increasing customer services (Frazelle, 2002, p. 91) The dictionary meaning of inventory is stock of goods or a list of goods. Various authors define the word inventory in their ways. In accounting language may mean stock of finished goods. In a manufacturing concern, it may include raw materials, work in process and stores. To understand the exact meaning of inventory the word inventory we may study it form the usage side and from the point of entry in the operation Among the different aspects of management, inventory management is also one of the major factors to play significant role in management of material , part supplies, expenses tools , working process, finished products and then record on the books and maintenance of store rooms, warehouses by an organization is known as inventory management . 2.2 Nature of Inventory The company holds different kinds of inventories to obtain their goals (Waters, 2003). Basically we can divide inventory into three parts which are following, Raw material Work in progress Finished goods (Toomey, 2003, pp. 20-21) Raw Material The stocks or inventories and purchase parts which is not part of manufacturing process is called raw material (Toomey, 2003). Raw materials are those basic inputs that have to be gone through the different process to convert into finished goods. Raw materials inventories are such kind of inventories which have been purchased and stored for future manufacturing process. Raw materials are hold in store by manufacturing company to smooth running of production process. The author defines raw material as those kinds of stocks which is imported from suppliers and are store until needed for manufacture (Waters, 2003, p. 9). Work in progress Work in progress refers to inventory units that are currently being worked on (Waters, 2003, p. 9). Work in progress inventories are neither a finished product nor raw materials. It is middle of raw materials and finished product. The author (Toomey, 2003, pp. 20-21) defines work in progress (WIP) inventories are those kinds of inventories which are in different phase of completion throughout the manufacturing process. It is very difficult to separate which materials are WIP and which are not. Because the same materials may be a raw material in one industry and same material may be a WIP as well as finished goods in other industry. It depends upon nature of production. Finished goods The finished goods inventory represents products that are ready for sale. According to (Toomey, 2003, pp. 20-21) finished goods are those items which are awaiting shipment to customers. Finished goods inventories includes all the completed products which going to be sold (Muller, 2003, pp. 19-20).These are goods fully manufactured inspected and ready for dispatch to a customer. In manufacturing firm, these are the final output of the production process. Stocks of finished goods are held by manufacturing and non-manufacturing company for market operation. 2.3 Purpose of inventory Inventory is the most important to all manufacturing organization in todays industrial world and it plays vital role to exist the company. So it is necessary to manage it properly because both situations of inventories either excessive or inadequate are not acceptable to the firm. There are two larger points within which the firm should operate. The objective of inventory management should be to determine and maintain optimum level of inventory investment. The optimum level of inventory will lie between two danger points of excessive and inadequate inventories. According to (Wild, 2002, p. 7) the propose of the inventory management function in supporting in the business activities is to optimize the three sectors customer services, inventory cost and operating cost. The author refers about purpose of inventory like this the inventory is created when supply excesses the demand. The main purpose of holding the inventory in the company is to prevent from shortage of raw materials, expected demand, to gain more profit (Li, 2007, p. 176). Firm should always aware from over investment or under-investment in the inventories. Over investment and under investment in inventory is unhealthy for the company. Due to over investment into inventory, makes unnecessary tie-up and the amount which we cant invest in other purpose, increasing carrying costs, risk of liquidity. Excessive carrying costs will directly effect in the company profit. Due to over inventories; it may not be possible to sell them in time and at full value. Similarity, WIP is far more difficult to sell because as we said before WIP is not finished goods. In the same way finished goods inventory should sold at low prices due to fall in the price in market and the seasonal factors. So, more investment in inventories is harmful to producer/company. It should be cut down. Similarly, under investment in inventories also not good for company. It carries some problems such as production hold-ups, frequent production interruptions. If finished goods are not sufficient, we do not meet the customers demand and our goodwill also loss. Thus, the objectives of inventory management should be neither excessive nor inadequate level of inventories but maintaining sufficient inventory level for the smooth production and sales operations. An optimum level of inventory should be determined on the basis of the trade-off between costs and benefits. The various importance of inventory management can be summarized up as follows: Predictability Unreliability of supply Price protection Lower ordering cost Anticipated demand 2.7 Procedure of Inventory Management These are lot of function have to be done For the achievement of its objectives business performs a wide variety of function, namely production, marketing, personnel, office research and development of these production and marketing are basic operating functions in a typical business enterprise. Marketing is concerned with the demand side of goods and services, while production is concerned with the supply side. One cannot exist without other; however, decisions about the production activities constitute one of the most important functions of the top management. Production is concerned with the provision of goods and services for the satisfaction of the customer wants. Therefore the consumer depends upon the good economical and efficient production system good inventory management there should be used different activities in ought procedure or manner. General activities such as purchasing, receiving, store-keeping and issuing and pricing are the procedure of inventory management. The y are described as follows: 2.7.1 Purchasing Purchasing is the fulcrum when it comes to meeting customer demands (Johnson, 2010) . Purchasing is the most important function of inventory management to select the suppliers, because it brings significant saving for the organization (Elanchezhian, et al 2010). All organization need various kinds of input like goods and services form external suppliers. The writers ( Baily, Farmer, Jessop, jones, 2005, pp. 3-4) define purchasing as to acquire right quantity of material, at the right time, in the right quantity, from the right source, at the right price. In simple words purchasing is relate to going the open market finding the require materials at the lowest price and selecting the supplier who offers it at that price having the quality of the materials in minds. In fact the process of inventory management begins with purchasing .The need for particular materials initiates purchasing in a firm. A good purchasing management has played important role in the manufacturing companies. We should pay more attention in the purchasing raw materials, supplies in the right quantity of the right quality from the right origin at the right time and cost. The production is hampered the scarcity of raw materials on time, purchasing department should take grater responsibilities and should analysis the existing procurement policy and should tune with the overall organizational objectives and policies. We can improve management of purchase by the help of standardization, value analysis, material substitution, transportation saving and cost reduction of packing modification. There are the following functions of a purchase department. How to purchase? Where to purchase? How much to purchase? At what price to purchase? To perform there function effectively, the purchase department follows the following procedures Receiving purchase requisition Exploring the sources of supply and choosing of suppliers Preparation and execution of purchase order. Receiving and inspecting materials. Checking and issuing of bills for payment.  [3]   The objectives of purchase department is to arrange the supply of materials, spare parts and services or semi-finished goods required for desired production .Walters observes purchasing functions as ‘The Procurement and Purchase of the proper materials, machinery, equipment and supplies for stores used in the manufacturing of a product adopted to marketing in the proper quality at the proper time and at the lowest price constant with desired. Purchasing now become a specialized function in many organization wasting expenses that Purchasing is a managerial activity that goes beyond the simple act of buying and includes the planning and policy, objectives covering wide range of related and complimentary included in such activities are the research and development required for the proper selection of materials and sources from which these materials may be brought.  [4]   In the words of matter industrial purchasing is The procurement by purchase of Alfred and Beauty .Principles of industrial the proper adopted to marketing in the proper quantity and quality at the proper time and at the lowest price consistently with the quality desired A Purchasing means a policy well planned, Procedures free from much formalities and development of up to date methods and techniques of higher standard to reveal efficiency and economy.  [5]   2.7.2 Receipt and Store Keeping After sometimes of placing the order, flow-up process starts to get quick delivery of the items. The items are received by the purchasing department at the time of delivery and received items are compared with purchase order and actual materials received should be entered in goods received note. Then all items received by the purchasing department should be passed into store for protection against deterioration and pilferage. They are stored in such a way that their location is easily identified at the time of issue The store function involves both keeping the store of materials and keeping the store records, the former being physical task and the later being accounting task depending upon the nature and requirements of the organizations the stores are classified as centralized and decentralized store.  [6]   In the words of Maynard, the duties of store keeping are to receive materials to protect than while in storage from damage and unauthorized removal to issue the materials in the right quantity at the right time , to the right place and to provide these services promptly and at least costs. Good store keeping should help achieve location identification, receipt and issue without delay. Storage space should be economically utilized and materials should be protected against deterioration, fine theft, details of quantities should be available on request. General code numbers are assigned to materials for easy identification. Materials may be stored in bin, rack, drawer, tray, boxes or floor area.  [7]   Store keeping in the activity of receiving or distributing stores or supplies, stores included direct raw materials, indirect materials (supplies) and finished goods  [8]   Generally the physical stock available in the store after counting, weighting , measuring , listing as the case may be is properly recorded by only of the following methods. 2.7.3 Issued and Pricing Materials are kept in stores so that the storekeeper may issue them whenever these are required by the production departments. Materials should be issued on receipt of materials requisition of Bill of materials under proper authority to avoid the misappropriation of materials.  [9]   Materials issued from the stores are debited to the jobs or work orders which received them and credited to the materials account. These jobs are debited with the value of material issued to them.  [10]   Each item inside the inventory has some value associated with it. This value depends on the price duration of the item inside the inventory, procurement cost, storage cost etc. Generally the time of purchase and time of issue of any items are different and the market prices of the items also vary with time. Thus, for costing purposes, the problems of pricing at the time of issue are great signification.  [11]   2.7.4 Cost Basis for Inventory Valuation The primary basis of accounting for inventory is cost which has been defined generally as the price paid to considerate given to acquire an asset. As applied to inventories, cost means in principal the sum of the applicable expenditure and changes directly or indirectly incurred in bringing an article to its existing condition and location.  [12]   Conceptually the process of valuation the inventory is simple. We can calculate inventory value that multiplying physical quantity of goods by cost per unit. But in practice, many organizations purchase different types of raw materials at different price and different time. Price of materials changes time to time. There are many types of raw materials remain in the stock. It is not always possible to identify the individual particular purchase group. At the solution firms have faced difficulties in valuation the inventories. In this situation there are many methods which are based on historical cost used in determining the value of inventory are: a. First In First Out Method Under the First In First Out method the units are assumed to have been disposed of in the order in which they were acquired and the units remaining are assumed to be those which were acquired last. This assumption is realistic in that good merchandising requires that older stock be moved to the front and new purchases placed in back of the bin. Consequently the oldest merchandise in sold first, because sales orders are filled from the front of the bins. The last merchandise purchased remains in the inventory.  [13]   b. Last In First Out Method Under this method, the cost of goods sold consists of the cost of the most recently acquired goods, and the ending inventory consists of the cost of the oldest goods which were available for sale during the period.  [14]   This method does not conform to the physical flow of the units of goods but is nevertheless widely used. In periods of steadily rising prices, the inventory value will be at the lower cost of the earliest units acquired. The value of the inventory on the statement of financial position is a conservative one. In the statement of income the cost of goods sold is higher, and when costs increase net income is lower resulting in lower income taxes of course, in periods of falling prices, the results will be opposite, the cost of good sold will be lower and net income will be higher. Under LIFO method, whether costs are rising or falling, the net income over a series of years shows less variation.  [15]  . c. Specific Price or Identification Method Under this method, materials issued to production are priced at their purchase prices. The basic assumption in following this method is that materials in the stores are capable of being identified as belonging to specific lots. Identification can be made by placing some distinguishing mark usually price tag on every lot. When materials are issued, price tags are removed and forwarded to the costing department for ascertaining the material cost of production. This method is simple in its mechanism and operation. This method does not create accounting complications as are associated with the working of FIFO, LIFO and average methods. But this method is useful where job costing is in operation and the actual material issued can be identified. It is also suited to the needs of a small business enterprise when a small number of items of materials are purchased and stored which can be easily identified.  [16]   d. Base Stock Method Each concern always maintains a minimum quantity of material in stock. This minimum quantity is known as safety or base stock and this should be used only when an emergency arises. The base stock is created out of the first lot the material purchased and, therefore, it is always valued at the cost price of the first lot and is carried forward as a fixed asset. This method works with some other method and is generally used with FIFO or LIFO method. Any quantity over and above the base stock is issued in accordance with the other method which is used in conjunction with this method. The objective of this method is to issue the material according to the current prices. This objective will be achieved only when the LIFO method is used together with the Base Stock method.  [17]   2.8 Cost Associated with Inventory There are many cost associated with the size of inventory directly either advocating to decrease the inventory size or suggesting an increase in the inventory size, for an effective inventory analysis and control of the system one should have clear picture about the behavior of cost associated with different factors. Different kinds of costs associated with inventory management are explained below. a. Carrying cost Carrying cost per period, c, represent the cost of inventory storage, handling and insurance, together with the required rate of return on the investment in inventory. These costs are assumed to be constant per unit of inventory per unit of time.  [18]  Cost incurred for maintaining a given level of inventory are called carrying cost. Carrying cost means storing cost. It starts when raw-materials are placed in warehouse and it continuous until finished goods have not produced except production cost. When we carry raw- materials to production spot and there make final product and that final product we carry into stock. In course of carrying to production spot and returned back to warehouse may labor, handling cost, this cost is also included in carrying costs. However the size of inventory increases, the carrying cost also increases. The carrying costs and the inventory size are positively related and move in the same direction. Carrying cost is the first category of inventory management cost which is generally associated proportionally with the average value of inventory.  [19]   Total carrying cost vary in proportion to the value of inventory usually they are computed from the following formula. Total carrying cost = Average inventory * carrying cost per unit Symbolically TCC = Q/2 *C Where, Q = Quantity order size b. Ordering cost Ordering cost represent all of the cost of placing and receiving an order. When a firm is ordering from an external source, these include the costs of preparing the purchase requisition, expediting the order (long-distance calls and follow-up letters), receiving and inspecting the shipment and handling charge. In practice, the cost per order generally contains both fixed and variable components, since a portion of the cost- such as that of receiving and inspecting the order- normally varies with the quantity ordered. Ordering cost may different in the sense of inventories nature. Such as for Raw-materials- ordering cost involves the clerical cost in placing an order as well as certain costs of receiving and checking the goods once they arrive. For finished goods- ordering cost involves scheduling a production run. And for work-in-progress- ordering costs are likely to involve nothing more than record keeping. Ordering cost : the fixed expense in the preparation and execution of an order for goods.  [20]   Ordering cost increase in proportion to the number of orders placed. Thus more frequently the inventor is acquired, higher the firms ordering costs. On the other hand ordering costs decrease with increasing size of inventory. Generally ordering costs involves: Cost of placing an order Requisitioning cost Transportation/shipping cost Receiving, inspecting and storing costs Sales tax, Customs, etc Clearing and forwarding costs Insurance of raw-materials Stationary cost Bank commission/ L.C. charges Telephone/Fax/Postage expense to follow up Cost incurred when raw-materials in transit Firms usually offer discount for purchase materials in large quantity. Such discount helps reduction in the unit price of the items purchases, such facilities encourage buyers to place a fewer orders rather than placing small once Ordering cost is calculated by following formula Ordering cost = Annual Requirement/Quantity order size *Ordering cost per unit Symbolically, TOC = A/Q x O 2.9 Inventory Systems The inventory accounting system can be Periodic System or continuous system. 2.10 Inventory Management Models Push and Pull Models: Inventory management models can be classified either push or pull models: a. Push Inventory Models Push models schedule orders for production or order good in advance or customer demand. Manufactures push the finished products through the distribution channel to intermediaries and the final consumer. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ), Material Requirement Planning (MRPI), Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRIP II) and distribution requirement planning (DRP) are all push models. i. Economic order quantity (EOQ) In an ideal environment, forecasting demand would be easy and straight forward. Simply look at past demand patterns to predict future consumption. Under these conditions, EOQ model can be used to calculate when to order the item and how much to order. The basic EOQ equation is as follows EOQ = √2PD/CV Where, P=Cost of placing one order in rupees D = Annual demand for the product C = Annual inventory carrying cost expresses as a percentage of products cost of value. V = Average cost or value of one unit of inventory ii. Material Requirement Planning (MRPI) MRPI is a computer- based management information system designed to manage dependent demand inventory items in the transformation process of operations management. This computerized inventory system was developed in the 1960s to deal primarily with the timing the tedious record keeping of dependent demand inventory transactions. Many researchers believe that MRP systems historically have made a fundamental software development contribution that has helped cause computer-based system to integrate and therefore aid in the development of computer- integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems.  [21]   One of the most common dependent demand inventory system used in the United States is the managerial requirement planning (MRP) system.  [22]  It supports the planning and control of dependent demand inventory and is most popular in U.S organizations that have substantial dependent demand inventory to manage. It includes any products that are made from dependent demand inventory items such has components or raw materials. MRP processes information for production scheduling and capacity planning as well. As an inventory management system, MRP can be used to plan inventory needs over a fixed planning horizon. Although MRP can plan inventory requirement for a period of from a single day to several years, the information the program generator is usually based on weekly intervals. In MRP terminology, the weekly (or other time period chosen) are referred to as time buckets. One of the primary objectives of an MRP system is provide an adequate supply of dependent demand inventory when required fro production. MRP also seeks to provide useful inventory, production scheduling, and capacity planning information for inventory control proposes. There are two types of MRP systems: Regenerative System: This is a periodic data input system. Under this system, changes in input data are saved until a specific time, such as the end of a week or end of a month. Changes are then run on a group of batch basis. Net-change System This is a continuous data input system. Under this system, changes are immediately entered into the computer. New MRP planning information is then recomputed for all of the elements in the inventory system that are affected by the changes. iii. Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP II) System The basis MRP system simply handles the materials aspects of production/ operations control. No real account is taken of capacity implications Therefore one more sophisticated system developed in Manufacturing resources planning (MRPII) system  [24]  In addition to producing the detailed material plan, the system can produce detailed capacity plans provided it has the necessary job-routing data and so on. The implementation of these plans allows shop-floor and purchase control to be carried out. MRP II is essentially a computer system. It has been suggested by Oliver Wight that MRP/ MRP II implementations can be classified on a four- point scale, from A to D. Table no . Briefly describes these states. Class Characteristics D MRP working in data-processing department only Poor inventory records Master schedule mismanaged Reliance on shortage lists for progressing C Used for inventory ordering, not scheduling Scheduling by shortage lists Overloaded master schedule B System includes capacity planning, shop-floor control Used to plan production, not manage the business Helps still needed from shortage lists Inventory higher than necessary A Uses closed-loop MRP Integrates capacity planning, shop-floor control, vendor scheduling Used to plan sales, engineering, purchasing No shortage lists to over-ride schedules Most organization implementing MRP/ MRP II are on the path from class D status to class A status. A difficult faced is knowing, in a quantitative sense, where on the path the organization is, and what steps to take to effect improvements. iv. Distribution Requirement Planning (DRP) DRP applies MRP II principles to the flow of finished goods to field warehouses and customers. Although MRP II improved MRP by taking into account both material management and production scheduling. It failed to account for this out bound movement. DRP adjusts ordering patterns of inventory needs vary, responds more readily to system wide inventory needs and better deals with product availability and receipt timing. b. Pull Inventory Model Pull inventory models are based on making goods once customer demand is known . The product is pulled through the channel of distribution by the order. Recent trends suggest a movement to use pull inventory models to reduce inventory throughout the channels. JIT and KanBan are the must widely used pull inventory models. i. KanBan Pull Model The KanBan Mean visual record and is the production control system the uses JIT production system, allowing production with smaller inventories, KanBan is also referred to as card system, a single card KanBan and two card KanBan system. ii. Single Card KanBan The single card kanban system uses only a conveyance (move) kanban and no production kanban. The single card kanban is must common used in Japan.  [25]   iii. Two card KanBan Inventroy is usually controlled at low levels by using a manual two card KanBan system. One card is conveyance KanBan, the requisition and authorization of transferenceof materials form supply center to work center. A second card the production KanBan, authorizes the production of materials. 2

Nonbelief as Support for Atheism Essay -- Religion Atheist God Papers

Nonbelief as Support for Atheism The Canadian philosopher J.L. Schellenberg has recently put forward an argument for atheism based on the idea that God is supposed to be perfectly loving and so would not permit people to be deprived of awareness of his existence. If such a deity were to exist, then, he would do something to reveal his existence clearly to people, thereby causing them to become theists. Thus, the fact that there are so many non-theists in the world becomes good reason to deny the existence of God conceived of in the given way. I first raise objections to Schellenberg’s formulation of the argument and then suggest some improvements. My main improvement is to include among the divine attributes the property of strongly desiring humanity’s love. Since to love God requires at least believing that he exists, if God were to exist, he must want widespread theistic belief. The fact that so many people lack such belief becomes a good argument for atheism with respect to God conceived of in the g iven way. Some objections to this line of reasoning are considered, in particular the claim that God refrains from revealing himself to people in order to avoid interfering with their free will or to avoid eliciting inappropriate responses from them or some other (unknown) purpose. An attempt is made to refute each of these objections. Atheism of a certain sort can be supported by appeal to the existence of widespread nonbelief in God. This is shown by a Canadian philosopher, J. L. Schellenberg, in his book Divine Hiddenness and Human Reason. His argument is as follows: (1) If there is a God, he is perfectly loving. (2) If a perfectly loving God exists, reasonable nonbelief does not occur. (3) [But] reasonable nonbelief... ...tween weak and strong arguments, I would give it a score of seventy-five. (Of course, that figure would be reduced for theists who answer only one of the questions affirmatively, and it would be zero for theists in general, apart from the survey questions.) ANB may not prove conclusively that God does not exist, but it does render that result likely. It presents good support for a certain form of atheism and a serious challenge for theists which they have yet to overcome. Notes (1) J. L. Schellenberg, Divine Hiddenness and Human Reason (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 83. (2) Ibid., pp. 47-57. (3) Daniel Howard-Snyder, "The Argument from Divine Hiddenness," Canadian Journal of Philosophy 26 (1996), pp. 433-453, followed by J. L. Schellenberg, "Response to Howard-Snyder," pp. 455-462. (4) Ibid., p. 460. (5) Divine Hiddenness, p. 211.

Diversity: Individual Behavior Impact Essay -- Work Diverse Behavior

Diversity: Individual Behavior Impact   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Individual behavior is the pattern of behavior, thought, and emotion, unique to an individual, and the ways he or she interact to help or hinder the adjustment of a person to other people and situations (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2001). Within organizations, diversity can positively or negatively impact the behavior of individuals. Organizations are responsible and held accountable for making the overall work environment conducive for all within the diversified setting. Diversity is shaped and informed by a variety of characteristics including age, ethnicity, gender, disability, language, religion beliefs, life stages, education, career responsibilities, sexual orientation, personality traits, and marital status. Workplace diversity is about acknowledging differences and adapting work practices to create an inclusive environment in which one?s diverse skills, perspectives, and backgrounds, are valued (Workplace Diversity Strategy, 2003). There are many diversity issues within the workplace however, age, gender, personality traits, and religion highly impacts individual behaviors within an organization. Age   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ?The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA)?, states the unlawfulness of discriminating against a person because of his or her age with respect to any term, condition, or privilege of employment; including, but not limited to, hiring, firing, promotion, layoff, compensation, benefits, job assignments, and training (Age Diversity, 1997). Age diversity at work means employing people of all ages, and not discriminating against someone because of how old he or she is. Age discrimination can take place as a result of the organization or from the different generational differences that make-up the organization. Generational differences can have many diverse impacts on individual behavior with regard to age differences. These differences can become a big distraction, hurt morale, and teamwork, unless managers learn how to accommodate the uniqueness of each group (Gomolski, 2001). Typically older persons tend to take his or her work related responsibilities very serious unlike their younger counterparts. Older employees take pride in doing a job well whereas younger employees want to just get the job done and move on to the next assignment. Although each person is working toward the same organ... ...997). Age Diversity: Facts about Age Discrimination. Retrieved from www.eeoc.gov/policy/adea.html on August 4, 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Author unknown (2005). The Workplace Religion Freedom Act. Your Gateway to the Jewish Internet, 2005. Retrieved from www.ou.org on August 7, 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Author unknown (date). Workplace Diversity Strategy (2003-2005). Retrieved from www.dewr.gov.au/publications on August 4, 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  BSR Staff (1999). Religion in the Workplace. Business for Social Responsibility. 2001-2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gomoliski, B. (2001). Managing age diversity in the workplace. Computerworld Inc., 2005. Retrieved from www.computerworld.com on August 6, 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hahn, S., Litwin, A. (1995). Women and Men Understanding and Respecting Gender Differences in the Workplace. Anne Litwin & Associates, 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  McInnes, R. (1999). Workforce Diversity: Changing the Way You Do Business. Diversity World, 1999-2005. Retrieved from www.diversityworld.com August 4, 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition (2001). Columbia University Press, 2001-2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  William, S. (2005). Appreciating Personality Diversity. Retrieved from www.wright.edu/~scott.williams on August 4, 2005.